Self-Validation Theory: Confidence can Increase but also Decrease Performance in Applied Settings.

This article presents self-validation theory (SVT) as a framework predicting when mental contents guide performance. First, we illustrate how confidence can validate people's thoughts (goals, beliefs, identity) increasing and decreasing performance, depending on what thoughts are validated. This first section reviews examples of validation processes in guiding intellectual performance in academic settings, sport performance in athletes, as well as performance on diverse social tasks. SVT specifies moderating conditions for validation processes to operate. Therefore, in the second section of this review, we identify unique and testable moderators for metacognitive processes demonstrating when and for whom validation processes are more likely to occur. A third section calls for future research identifying new validating variables (e.g., preparation, courage) capable of increasing usage of unexplored thoughts relevant to performance (e.g., expectations). This final section examines new domains for validation (e.g., group performance, cheating in performance), discusses to what extent people can use self-validation strategies deliberatively to improve their performance and addresses when performance can be impaired by invalidation (e.g., due to identity threat).

Self-Validation Theory: Confidence can Increase but also Decrease Performance in Applied Settings

This article presents self-validation theory (SVT) as a framework predicting when mental contents guide performance. First, we illustrate how confidence can validate people’s thoughts (goals, beliefs, identity) increasing and decreasing performance, depending on what thoughts are validated. This first section reviews examples of validation processes in guiding intellectual performance in academic settings, sport performance in athletes, as well as performance on diverse social tasks. SVT specifies moderating conditions for validation processes to operate. Therefore, in the second section of this review, we identify unique and testable moderators for metacognitive processes demonstrating when and for whom validation processes are more likely to occur. A third section calls for future research identifying new validating variables (e.g., preparation, courage) capable of increasing usage of unexplored thoughts relevant to performance (e.g., expectations). This final section examines new domains for validation (e.g., group performance, cheating in performance), discusses to what extent people can use self-validation strategies deliberatively to improve their performance and addresses when performance can be impaired by invalidation (e.g., due to identity threat). (AU)

Are Positive Interventions Always Beneficial?

Can people improve their lives by smiling more, trying to have a better posture, and by thinking about good memories? Can individuals become more successful by deliberatively engaging in positive actions and thoughts? Do people feel better by following recommendations from naïve psychology? In the present article we discuss these questions, noting that although some popular interventions thought to be universally beneficial (e.g., inductions of happiness, self-affirmation, empowerment, self-distancing) can sometimes yield positive outcomes, at other times the outcomes can also be negative. Taking an empirical approach based on experimental evidence, we postulate that understanding the underlying processes discovered in the science of persuasion is the key for specifying why, when, and for whom these practical initiatives are more likely to work or to backfire.

Promoting healthy eating by enhancing the correspondence between attitudes and behavioral intentions / Promocionando la alimentación saludable a través de la mejora en la relación entre actitudes e intenciones conductuales

BACKGROUND: Healthy eating campaigns are not always successful in changing food-related attitudes. Even when interventions produce the desired outcomes in attitudes, it is often challenging to translate those psychological changes into subsequent behaviors. Previous research has shown that elaboration (amount of thinking) is a critical construct for understanding the ability of attitudes to guide behavior. Instead of looking directly at objective elaboration, this study examined attitude-behavior correspondence as a function of subjective elaboration. METHOD: Participants were first randomly assigned to generate positive or negative arguments with regard to taxing junk food. After this experimental manipulation, participants reported their subjective elaboration (as an additional predictor), and their attitudes and behavioral intentions regarding the proposal (as dependent measures). RESULTS: As hypothesized, the results showed that the greater perceived elaboration, the larger the ability of attitudes to guide behavioral intentions. That is, attitudes were more predictive of behavioral intentions in participants with higher levels of perceived elaboration compared to those with relatively lower levels of subjective thinking. CONCLUSION: Health initiatives can benefit from considering the extent to which participants perceive thinking about persuasive proposals

ANTECEDENTES: las campañas que promocionan una alimentación saludable no siempre consiguen cambiar las actitudes de las personas. Incluso cuando se cambian las actitudes, a menudo esos cambios no se traducen en los correspondientes comportamientos saludables. La investigación llevada a cabo hasta este momento demuestra que la cantidad de elaboración sobre una propuesta persuasiva constituye un constructo esencial a la hora de entender la relación entre actitudes e intenciones conductuales. En la presente investigación se estudia el papel de la elaboración subjetiva en la relación entre actitudes e intenciones conductuales dentro del contexto de la evaluación de la comida saludable. MÉTODO: los participantes del estudio fueron asignados aleatoriamente a generar pensamientos positivos o negativos sobre la posibilidad de aumentar los impuestos a la comida basura. Después de esta manipulación experimental, se midió la elaboración subjetiva (predictor) y las actitudes e intenciones conductuales con respecto a la propuesta persuasiva (medidas dependientes). RESULTADOS: se encontró que cuanto mayor fue la elaboración percibida, mayor resultó la capacidad de las actitudes para guiar las intenciones conductuales. CONCLUSIÓN: las iniciativas de salud pueden beneficiarse de forma significativa al incluir una medida sencilla de la elaboración percibida

Promoting healthy eating by enhancing the correspondence between attitudes and behavioral intentions.

BACKGROUND: Healthy eating campaigns are not always successful in changing food-related attitudes. Even when interventions produce the desired outcomes in attitudes, it is often challenging to translate those psychological changes into subsequent behaviors. Previous research has shown that elaboration (amount of thinking) is a critical construct for understanding the ability of attitudes to guide behavior. Instead of looking directly at objective elaboration, this study examined attitude-behavior correspondence as a function of subjective elaboration. METHOD: Participants were first randomly assigned to generate positive or negative arguments with regard to taxing junk food. After this experimental manipulation, participants reported their subjective elaboration (as an additional predictor), and their attitudes and behavioral intentions regarding the proposal (as dependent measures). RESULTS: As hypothesized, the results showed that the greater perceived elaboration, the larger the ability of attitudes to guide behavioral intentions. That is, attitudes were more predictive of behavioral intentions in participants with higher levels of perceived elaboration compared to those with relatively lower levels of subjective thinking. CONCLUSION: Health initiatives can benefit from considering the extent to which participants perceive thinking about persuasive proposals.

Are positive interventions always beneficial?

Can people improve their lives by smiling more, trying to have a better posture, and by thinking about good memories? Can individuals become more successful by deliberatively engaging in positive actions and thoughts? Do people feel better by following recommendations from naïve psychology? In the present article we discuss these questions, noting that although some popular interventions thought to be universally beneficial (e.g., inductions of happiness, self-affirmation, empowerment, self-distancing) can sometimes yield positive outcomes, at other times the outcomes can also be negative. Taking an empirical approach based on experimental evidence, we postulate that understanding the underlying processes discovered in the science of persuasion is the key for specifying why, when, and for whom these practical initiatives are more likely to work or to backfire

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La evaluación de candidatos en un proceso de selección de personal: Preferencia por la experiencia sobre el potencial en contextos desfavorables / The evaluation of candidates in a personnel selection: Preference for experience over potential in unfavorable contexts

La presente investigación tiene como objeto averiguar cómo se responde a distintos perfiles en la evaluación de candidatos de selección en función de contexto organizacional. Se realizó un experimento con una muestra de participantes capacitados en selección de personal. Los participantes recibieron primero un mensaje que describía que el futuro de una organización dada era favorable o desfavorable. Luego, se les pidió a todos los participantes que leyeran la información sobre un posible candidato para dicha organización. El candidato fue descrito en términos de su experiencia previa o en términos de su potencial como profesional. Después de recibir la información sobre la organización y el perfil, se pidió a todos los participantes que evaluaran al candidato para el puesto. Esperábamos que hubiera una mayor preferencia por la experiencia en relación con el potencial, particularmente cuando el contexto era desfavorable. Como se predijo, los resultados mostraron que, en condiciones contextuales desfavorables, las actitudes hacia el candidato fueron más favorables cuando el candidato de trabajo fue presentado en términos de experiencia (vs potencial). En condiciones contextuales favorables, las actitudes hacia el candidato no variaron en función de su perfil

The present research's main goal is to examine the evaluation of a job candidate as a function of his profile and the context of the organization. An experiment was conducted with a sample of participants trained in personnel selection. Participants first received a message describing that the future of a given organization was favorable or unfavorable. Then, all participants were asked to read the information about a potential job candidate for such organization. The candidate was described in terms of his previous experience or in terms of his potential as a professional. After receiving the information about the organization and the profile, all participants were asked to evaluate the job candidate. We expected that there would be a higher preference for experience relative to potential, particularly when the context was unfavorable. As predicted, results showed that under unfavorable contextual conditions, attitudes towards the candidate were more favorable when the job candidate was portrayed in terms of experience (vs potential). Under favorable contextual conditions, attitudes towards the candidate did not vary as a function of his profile

Trait aggressiveness predicting aggressive behavior: The moderating role of meta-cognitive certainty.

Research on aggression has benefitted from using individual-difference measures to predict aggressive behavior. Research on meta-cognition has recently identified that the predictive utility of individual-difference inventories can be improved by considering the certainty with which people hold their self-views. Merging these two frameworks, the present research examines whether assessing certainty in trait aggressiveness improves its ability to predict aggressive outcomes. Across two studies, participants reported their level of trait physical aggressiveness and the certainty with which they held their responses to the scale (predictor variables). Aggressive behavioral intentions (Study 1 and 2) and actual aggressive behavior (Study 2) were used as dependent measures. As hypothesized, results indicated that certainty moderated the effects of individual-differences in aggressiveness on both aggressive outcomes. Therefore, considering the certainty with which people hold their relevant traits can be useful for understanding aggression, and also for predicting the consistency between personality and behavior.

Post-traumatic cognitions and quality of life in terrorism victims: the role of well-being in indirect versus direct exposure.

BACKGROUND: The effect of indirect (versus direct) exposure to a traumatic event on the quality of life of terrorist attack victims has received considerable attention in the literature. However, more research is required to examine whether the symptoms and underlying processes caused by both types of exposure are equivalent. Our main hypothesis is that well-being plays a different role depending on indirect vs. direct trauma exposure. METHODS: In this cross-sectional study, eighty direct victims of 11-M terrorist attacks (people who were traveling in trains where bombs were placed) and two-hundred indirect victims (individuals highly exposed to the 11-M terrorist attacks through communications media) voluntarily participated without compensation. To test our hypothesis regarding the mediating role of indirect exposure, we conducted a biased corrected bootstrapping procedure. To test our hypothesis regarding the moderating role of direct exposure, data were subjected to a hierarchical regression analysis. RESULTS: As predicted, for indirect trauma exposure, well-being mediated the relationship between post-traumatic dysfunctional cognitions and trauma symptoms. However, for direct trauma exposure, well-being moderated the relationship between post-traumatic dysfunctional cognitions and trauma symptoms. CONCLUSIONS: The results of our study indicate that the different role of well-being found between indirect (causal factor) and direct exposure (protective factor) should be taken into consideration in interventions designed to improve victims' health.

Validity and Reliability of the Spanish Version of the Revised Self-Monitoring Scale.

Self-Monitoring (SM) is a concept that refers to individual differences in this orientation toward regulation of social behavior. The goal of the present research was to provide a Spanish adaptation of Snyder and Gangestad's (1986) Revised SM Scale. After conducting an initial pilot study, results showed that the Spanish version of the scale had good internal reliability and adequate factor structure. In Study 1, analyses support a unidimensional structure of the scale (χ2/df = 2.64; GFI = .97; IFI = .97; TLI = .96; RMSEA = .06). In Study 2, the scale showed discriminant validity from other individual differences measures, such as Need for Cognition (r = 0.12 p = 0.14), Social Desirability (r = 0.06, p > .45) and Extraversion (r = 0.28 p = .001). In Study 3, the scale showed adequate test-retest reliability (r = 0.71, p < .001). Finally, using a paradigm of attitude-behavior consistenty, Study 4 showed that the validated scale also had good predictive validity (B = -0.819, p = .035).

The eudaimonic component of satisfaction with life and psychological well-being in Spanish cultures.

BACKGROUND: In the study of well-being there are two partially overlapping traditions that have been developed in parallel. Subjective well-being (SWB) has been associated with the hedonistic approach of well-being, and psychological well-being (PWB) with the eudaimonistic one. However, satisfaction with life, the most common SWB indicator, is not strictly a hedonic concept and contains many eudaimonic components. The objective of this research is to examine whether a Eudaimonic Well-being G-Factor of Satisfaction with Life (SWLS) and Psychological Well-being Scales (PWBS) emerges. METHOD: 400 people from the general population of Colombia (Study 1) and 401 from Spain (Study 2), recruited via advertisement, voluntarily participated and filled in a booklet containing, in order of appearance, the PWBS and the SWLS. RESULTS: According to our hypothesis, parallel analysis, eigenvalues, scree plot graphs and exploratory factor analysis (Study 1) suggested the existence of a one-factor structure. Confirmatory factor analysis (Study 2) indicated that this one-factor model provided excellent data fit. Results of a multi-group confirmatory factor analysis confirmed cross-cultural factor invariance. CONCLUSIONS: These results question the view that the satisfaction with life indicator is uniquely hedonic and point to the need for a greater integration between hedonic and eudaimonic traditions.

The eudaimonic component of satisfaction with life and psychological well-being in Spanish cultures / El componente eudaimónico de la satisfacción con la vida y el bienestar psicológico en culturas hispanas

BACKGROUND: In the study of well-being there are two partially overlapping traditions that have been developed in parallel. Subjective well-being (SWB) has been associated with the hedonistic approach of well-being, and psychological well-being (PWB) with the eudaimonistic one. However, satisfaction with life, the most common SWB indicator, is not strictly a hedonic concept and contains many eudaimonic components. The objective of this research is to examine whether a Eudaimonic Well-being G-Factor of Satisfaction with Life (SWLS) and Psychological Well-being Scales (PWBS) emerges. METHOD: 400 people from the general population of Colombia (Study 1) and 401 from Spain (Study 2), recruited via advertisement, voluntarily participated and filled in a booklet containing, in order of appearance, the PWBS and the SWLS. RESULTS: According to our hypothesis, parallel analysis, eigenvalues, scree plot graphs and exploratory factor analysis (Study 1) suggested the existence of a one-factor structure. Confirmatory factor analysis (Study 2) indicated that this one-factor model provided excellent data fi t. Results of a multi-group confirmatory factor analysis confirmed cross-cultural factor invariance. CONCLUSIONS: These results question the view that the satisfaction with life indicator is uniquely hedonic and point to the need for a greater integration between hedonic and eudaimonic traditions

ANTECEDENTES: en el estudio del bienestar existen dos tradiciones parcialmente solapadas que se han desarrollado en paralelo. El bienestar subjetivo (BS) se ha asociado tradicionalmente con la aproximación hedonista y el bienestar psicológico (BP) con la eudaimonista. Sin embargo, la satisfacción con la vida, el indicador más empleado de BS, incluye componentes claramente eudaimónicos. El objetivo de esta investigación es analizar si emerge un Factor G-Bienestar Eudaimónico de la Escala de Satisfacción con la Vida (ESV) y las Escalas de Bienestar Psicológico de Ryff (EBP). MÉTODO: 400 personas de población general de Colombia (estudio 1) y 401 de España (estudio 2) completaron, en este orden, las EBP y las ESV. RESULTADOS: el Análisis Paralelo de Horn y el Análisis Factorial Exploratorio (estudio 1) indicaron la existencia de una estructura de un factor. El Análisis Factorial Confirmatorio (estudio 2) demostró que el modelo de un factor se ajustaba de forma excelente a los datos. Mediante un análisis factorial confirmatorio multi-grupo se confirmó la invarianza factorial transcultural. CONCLUSIONES: estos resultados cuestionan que la satisfacción con la vida sea un indicador únicamente hedónico y señalan la necesidad de que se produzca una mayor integración entre la tradición hedónica y eudaimónica

Validity and reliability of the Spanish version of the revised self-monitoring scales

Self-Monitoring (SM) is a concept that refers to individual differences in this orientation toward regulation of social behavior. The goal of the present research was to provide a Spanish adaptation of Snyder and Gangestad's (1986) Revised SM Scale. After conducting an initial pilot study, results showed that the Spanish version of the scale had good internal reliability and adequate factor structure. In Study 1, analyses support a unidimensional structure of the scale (χ2/df = 2.64; GFI = .97; IFI = .97; TLI = .96; RMSEA = .06). In Study 2, the scale showed discriminant validity from other individual differences measures, such as Need for Cognition (r = 0.12 p = 0.14), Social Desirability (r = 0.06, p > .45) and Extraversion (r = 0.28 p = .001). In Study 3, the scale showed adequate test-retest reliability (r = 0.71, p < .001). Finally, using a paradigm of attitude-behavior consistenty, Study 4 showed that the validated scale also had good predictive validity (B = -0.819, p = .035) (AU)

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Adaptación al castellano del Test de Necesidad de Cierre Cognitivo / Spanish adaptation of the Need for Closure Scale

La Necesidad de Cierre Cognitivo (NCC) se refiere a la motivación de las personas por buscar y mantener una respuesta definitiva ante un problema determinado. Este cierre mental permite evitar la confusión, la ambigüedad y la incertidumbre. La NCC juega un papel importante en multitud de procesos de diferente naturaleza, incluyendo fenómenos intra-personales (e.g., a mayor NCC, se generan menos hipótesis), inter-personales (e.g., reduce la empatía), intra-grupales (e.g., aumenta la búsqueda de consenso) e inter-grupales (e.g., aumenta el favoritismo endo-grupal). El objetivo de la presente investigación fue adaptar al castellano el Test Revisado de NCC (TR-NCC) de Antonio Pierro y Arie Kruglanski (2005), examinando la fiabilidad y la validez de las puntuaciones de los participantes. En los estudios realizados, las puntuaciones de los participantes mostraron una consistencia interna aceptable y una validez factorial adecuada (Estudio 1); así como una fiabilidad temporal también aceptable y una adecuada validez discriminante con respecto a las puntuaciones en otra medida de diferencias individuales como la Necesidad de Cognición (NC, Estudio 2) (AU)

The Need for Cognitive Closure (NCC) refers to the motivation to seek and maintain a definitive answer to a given problem. This mental closure allows people to avoid confusion, ambiguity and uncertainty. The NCC plays a critical role in a variety of processes of diverse nature, including intra-personal (e.g., the higher the NCC, the less generation of hypothesis), inter-personal (e.g., decreased empathy), intra-group (e.g., increased desire for consensus), and inter-group (increased in-group favouritism) phenomena. The goal of the present research was to provide a Spanish adaptation of Antonio Pierro and Arie Kruglanski’s Revised NCC Scale (2005, Rev NfCS), examining the reliability and the validity of participants’ scores. In the present studies, it was found that the Spanish version of the scale had acceptable internal reliability and adequate factor structure (Study 1), as well as acceptable test-retest reliability and adequate discriminant validity with regard to the scores in another measure of individual differences such as the Need for Cognition (NC, Study 2) (AU)

[Spanish adaptation of the Need for Closure Scale]. / Adaptación al castellano del Test de Necesidad de Cierre Cognitivo.

The Need for Cognitive Closure (NCC) refers to the motivation to seek and maintain a definitive answer to a given problem. This mental closure allows people to avoid confusion, ambiguity and uncertainty. The NCC plays a critical role in a variety of processes of diverse nature, including intra-personal (e.g., the higher the NCC, the less generation of hypothesis), inter-personal (e.g., decreased empathy), intra-group (e.g., increased desire for consensus), and inter-group (increased in-group favouritism) phenomena. The goal of the present research was to provide a Spanish adaptation of Antonio Pierro and Arie Kruglanski's Revised NCC Scale (2005, Rev NfCS), examining the reliability and the validity of participants' scores. In the present studies, it was found that the Spanish version of the scale had acceptable internal reliability and adequate factor structure (Study 1), as well as acceptable test-retest reliability and adequate discriminant validity with regard to the scores in another measure of individual differences such as the Need for Cognition (NC, Study 2).

El cambio de actitudes hacia uno mismo en el contexto organizacional: el efecto del formato de pensamiento / Attitude change toward the self in the organizational context: the effect of thought format

La visión que tienen las personas de sí mismas influye sobre distintos comportamientos organizacionales. Por tanto, resulta esencial entender cómo se pueden modificar las actitudes hacia uno mismo tanto en el contexto personal como el organizacional. El cambio de actitudes depende fundamentalmente de la dirección (favorable o desfavorable) de los pensamientos con respecto a uno mismo. En el presente trabajo se propone estudiar, además de la dirección, también el formato de dichos pensamientos. Se llevaron a cabo dos experimentos en los que se pidió a los participantes que pensaran sobre sus fortalezas o debilidades (manipulación de la dirección del pensamiento) de forma continua o dicotómica (manipulación del formato). Los resultados indican que la dirección de los pensamientos influyó de forma directa o inversa sobre la auto-estima según el formato. Se ofrecen distintas interpretaciones de estos resultados destacando la posibilidad de que el pensamiento dicotómico resultara difícil en este contexto de alta relevancia. Finalmente, se sugieren implicaciones potenciales de los resultados para el comportamiento organizacional(AU)

Self-views can influence organizational behavior. Thus, it is important to understand how attitudes toward the self change not only in the personal domain, but also in organizational settings. Self-esteem varies as a function of the direction (favorable or unfavorable) of the thoughts people have toward themselves. The present research examines the impact of the format of these thoughts. Two experiments were conducted in which participants had to think about their strengths or weakness (thought-direction induction) in a continuum or dichotomous format (format manipulation). As expected, participants’ selfesteem was affected directly by the direction of the thoughts (assimilation effect) in the continuum condition, whereas there was a contrast effect (i.e., better self-esteem after thinking in negative rather than positive self-relevant thoughts) for the dichotomous condition. Different interpretations for these findings are offered, highlighting the possibility that dichotomous thinking was difficult in this context of personal relevance. Practical implications for organizational behavior are also discussed(AU)

[Need to evaluate: an assessment proposal in Spanish]. / Necesidad de evaluación: propuesta para su medición en castellano.

Everybody evaluates objects in terms of good and bad. Besides this general tendency, some individuals are more motivated than others to make evaluative judgments. Individual differences in this need to evaluate can be reliably assessed with the Need to Evaluate (NE) Scale development by Jarvis and Petty. The purpose of the present work was to adapt the NE test to Spanish, and to assess its psychometric properties of reliability and validity . The first study revealed that the Spanish version of the NE test had a good internal consistency. A second study confirmed that the test also showed good properties in terms of discriminant validity. The NE correlated moderately with Need for Cognition and Need for Closure, and but not with Social Desirability.

Necesidad de evaluación: Propuesta para su medición en castellano / Need to evaluate: An assessment proposal in Spanish

Las personas juzgamos los objetos de nuestro entorno en términos evaluativos (bueno-malo); pero algunas están más motivadas que otras para hacerlo. La Necesidad de Evaluación (NE) se refiere a estas diferencias individuales. Para su medición, Jarvis y Petty desarrollaron el test de Necesidad de Evaluación. El objetivo de la presente investigación ha sido adaptar al castellano este test y examinar su fiabilidad y validez. En el primer estudio se comprobó que la adaptación del test mostraba una buena consistencia interna y una adecuada validez factorial. En el estudio 2 se analizó la fiabilidad temporal y la validez discriminante del test, encontrándose que la NE correlacionó moderadamente con la Necesidad de Cognición y la Necesidad de Cierre y no mostró una relación significativa con la Deseabilidad Social

Everybody evaluates objects in terms of good and bad. Besides this general tendency, some individuals are more motivated than others to make evaluative judgments. Individual differences in this need to evaluate can be reliably assessed with the Need to Evaluate (NE) Scale development by Jarvis and Petty. The purpose of the present work was to adapt the NE test to Spanish, and to assess its psychometric properties of reliability and validity . The first study revealed that the Spanish version of the NE test had a good internal consistency. A second study confirmed that the test also showed good properties in terms of discriminant validity. The NE correlated moderately with Need for Cognition and Need for Closure, and but not with Social Desirability